Financial Policy Definition

Amartuul Turbat prof Fillenwarth fiscal Policy 11 March 2011 The Definitions oppugn 1-2 (1-1. a. b. ) Proprietorship is the entity have by an individual who is only founder and manager of the union. eve though it does not pay tax for located estates, proprietorships net or loses reports on its owners annual tax reports. Despite the fact that proprietorship is short to form and has seldom government regulations, its term of operation is at present depending on its founder life time (Ehrhardt and Brigham 5).In addition on proprietorship, a partnership is more flexible type which is a fear relationship betwixt several individuals who be similar desires to obtain the salary from the partnerships operation. Typically, partnership classified general and peculiar(a) establish on its contract regulation. Despite the fact that in general partnership-general members trusty to pay fraternitys loss by their own assets, in limited partnership members-limited members bottomland lo se the amount of m adepty which they invested in the partnership.Furthermore, likewise limited members responsible for limited part of the partnership, they have limited right to enrol or control the societys management. Even though at least one person should be a general member of the partnership, all members bunghole be partner whose potence losses are limited by their amount of coronation. This type of play along is called Limited Liability Company (Ehrhardt and Brigham 6). Finally, company organized as a corporation when business enlarged and it is difficult to manage it by body structure of partnership or proprietorship.Corporation works under the located state law and operates independently from managers. Due to this separation, corporation has unlimited life of existence, easy transferability of ownership interest, and limited liability losses (Ehrhardt and Brigham 24). chief 1-1 (C) pullulate holder Wealth Maximization is the main goal of the corporation since it is the best room of successful operation in long-term business. Derivatives is the special type of securities beca manipulation its comfort and right are depending on prices of an an otherwise(prenominal) assets or operation. D E) Corporations deal sell its stock in the private marketplaces or the national markets. remote the private market in which hatful is made in between two sides, in the public market, numerous battalion recruit in the trades. In order to be an owner of the corporations, investors can defile the companys stock from the primary markets in which companies sell their IPO (Initial ordinary covering) or from the secondary market in which IPO owners sell their stocks for other investors.Also, there are some other monetary markets exist such as money markets and capital markets. Main difference between those twain markets is unruffledation of the securities (Ehrhardt and Brigham 23). For example, in spite the fact that short-term highly liquid debts tr ade in the money market and long-term stocks and debt maturing trade in the capital markets. (F) Investment Bank is a financial institution which encourages the company to create stocks into the markets, and it is the assistant of the companies when they merging with each other (Ehrhardt and Brigham 23).Financial wait on Corporations are the organizations which involved with money management such as banks, faith card companies, and insurance companies (Ehrhardt and Brigham 24). Financial Intermediaries are the unions which involved finding the pointless money from one side and then allocating it to deficit sides (Ehrhardt and Brigham 30). (G) Mutual funds are the organizations that collect money from numerous investors and then put it to buy financial instruments such as stocks, bonds, short and long-term money instruments. bullion Market Fund is the one type of mutual fund which invests in securities with short-term, low risk, and more safety conditions (Ehrhardt and Brigham 29 ). (H) Physical Location exchanges is a natural financial market in which brokers and dealer participate in trade of stock, bonds, notes and mortgages. Computer/ Telephone Network Invertors can participate in trades by computer/ telephone network without requiring members to be in the very(prenominal) building. (I) bold Outcry Auction is a concern process of interchange and buy stocks by offering bids and then sell it higher prices.In other words it is the mechanism of the trades. Dealer markets is different from the auction since in which brokers performing a main role of the trading process, and they ask and quote the prices in order to match the seller or vendee with their prices (Ehrhardt and Brigham 30). Electronic discourse network is the automatic system which helps for members to match their bid to another buyer or seller. It provides people in any every counties opportunity to participate in trading by using internet (Ehrhardt and Brigham 30). J) Production opportun ities is the supposition to convert a capital into profits. Because production opportunities affect the returned earnings of the enthronisation, financiers take away it when they determining the cost of money (Ehrhardt and Brigham 21). cadence references for consumption is the tendency of the use of money in present and future. In spite the fact that in China people tend to save their money for future, Mongolian people prefer to use their money presents (Ehrhardt and Brigham 20). (K) Foreign trade deficit is the one of the economic condition which affects the cost of money.For example, if American foreign trade getting slows, its reserve of the money become decreasing, so it can be bow cost of the investment. It means American buy more than they sell (Ehrhardt and Brigham 19). Question 1-3 Intrinsic value is the true value of the organizations which based on factual position of market share, companys assets, and perception of the future. This value can be same as market value if factors are same in the estimation process. On the other hand, intrinsic value whitethorn be different from market value depending on information utilize in evaluation.For example, if management hides negative information, market value might be higher than intrinsic values (Ehrhardt and Brigham 9). Question 1-4 Edmund Enterprises recently made a large investment to upgrade its technology. Even though this investment cannot advance the income in short-term, it can reduce the production cost. Therefore, in short-term investment cost will increase in the Income Statement because of the new investment as a result profits will decrease and companys earnings per share will decrease.However, in the financial markets, this password affects positively on stocks market price. Also, this investment can raise the companys intrinsic value since it can reduce the production costs (Ehrhardt and Brigham 30). Question 1-5 Capital can be transferred by the direct and indirect ways. In direct w ays only two sides participate. Savers can make investment direct into business, and business sells their securities to savers without other parties. On the other hand, investment bank or financial intermediaries can participate effectively in transfers of capital.For example, person who has surplus money invest in business by using investment bank or financial intermediaries, and companies can get investment by collaborating with those third parties (Ehrhardt and Brigham 14). Question 1-6 Financial intermediaries such as commercial banks, financial service companies play a crucial role of the economic system. Banks allocate efficiently financial fund, and they offer financial services that can make easy to obtaining information for both savers and borrowers (Levine 690).Question 1-7 An initial public offering (IPO) is aprimary market transaction. Typically, the company sells the IPO to otherinstitutional investors, so the general public has no access to the IPO initially. After cer tain institutions get the stocks, they whitethorn sell them into the secondary market where all investors can buy them (Ehrhardt and Brigham 28). Question 1-8 Stock market is a securities market where bond, stock and other securities trading in guided by the professional stockbrokers.On the other hand, in dealer markets, transactions makes based on person who acting as dealers for his own accounts rather than brokers acting as dealer for his buying and selling processes (Buiter). Question 1-9 Two leading stock markets are New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) and Nasdaq Stock Exchange (NASDAQ). NYSE is considered largest stock market in the world and companies market capitalization which are listed at NYSE are US$13. 39 trillion in end of 2010. Also, NASDAQ is the largest electronic sort trading in the United States, and second largest stock market by market capitalization of listed companies (Buiter para. ). Works Cited Brigham, Eugene F. , and Michael C. Ehrhardt. Financial Management T heory and Practice. Mason, Ohio South-Western Cengage Learning, 2010. Print. Buiter, Willem H. Time Preference and International Lending and Borrowing in an Overlapping-Generations Model. The daybook of governmental Economy89. 4 (1989) 769+. Google Scholars. Web. 2 Mar. 2011. Levine, Ross. Financial Development and Economic Growth. Journal of Economic Literature(1999) 688-729. Web. 02 Mar. 2011.

Change: Marriage and Conventional Life Style Essay

An souls attempt to live freely is based on self-conceit and interest. To disrupt the ideal and signifi grassce of living under a established life style, one must step outside their daily good turns. We ar often resistant to change due to the consequences of our actions but for many, having a routine becomes everything. It is a comfortable customary way of living that guarantees safety and for things to tour the exact same. When a routine has become stagnant and unbendable we fork up become prisoners within the cells of our own making.By looking at in arrears the Headlines by Vidyut Aklujkar one can see the theme the author demonstrates betwwen custom and change*change can bring liberty In the fiddling story Behind the Headlines, Vidyut Aklujkar states a conflict between tradition vs change. Hariharans blind acceptance of mistreating Lakshmi is what leads her to such impulsive way to gain look of her own life. Lakshmi got tired just thinking about the predictability of her l ife. With this statement we can presume she feels obligated to serve Hariharan due to their marriage and customs. Mornings begun thus with Sanskrit and Sangeet would rat one feel warm and pure.Lakshmis flashback to India provides the reader with evidence that like Hariharan, she has as well morning routines. She then explains how she had to leave all that behind when she married Hariharan and had to hunt to Canada. In the short story Behind the Headline by Vidyut Aklujkar, the married woman Lakshmi is exhausted of her repetitive life that is caused by her husband Hariharan profession. Change in day to day tasks can provide you with flexibility.

The Biomedical Mode of Health

The bio medical exam simulation of wellness Introduction In wellness psychology it is seen that health is defined by variant com deputeer simulations. unitary such mold is the biomedical stick of health which revolves virtuall(a)y the spirit of a heavy soulify. The nonplus was introduced in the nineteenth blow and has been apply widely to diagnose infirmitys by the doctors. According to the model every disease or disorder is caused by a visible harm. In new(prenominal)(a) words the diseases or disorders be caused by germs or genes which might be changing the internal environment of the body to cause the disease.Although it has been introduced in the nineteenth century, the roots of the model date grit to the 17th century when Cartesian dualism existed. After its introduction the model replaced the antecedently famous humoral ikon in the twentieth century. The discovery of antibiotics proved to be a find in the approval of the model. However in the late twenti eth century some of the sociologists again started questioning the integrity of the biomedical model of health as they considered the social wellbeing of an individual to be as authoritative as the biological well being (Curtis 2002 Taylor 2008 Lovallo 2005 Havelka et al 2009).Biomedical Model of health The biomedical model of health induces its roots from the Cartesian Dualism which is dated back to the seventeenth century in the times of Descartes. Cartesian Dualism turn around the aspect that both mind and body atomic compute 18 dickens describe entities irrespective of their functions. In a similar fashion the model considers physical causes to be the main reason for the disease. The model has replaced the previously followed Humoral prototype which was formed by the Greeks.According to this paradigm the diseases in a kind body atomic number 18 caused by a current abnormality in the tetrad basic fluids of the body. In those times the four basic fluids of the body we re believed to be blood, b omit bile, yellow bile and phlegm. The treatment of this paradigm in like manner revolved around the maintenance of these four basic fluids. One thing that the Humoral paradigm and biomedical model of health cast off in earthy is that both of them consider bodily factors to be the cause of the disease (Curtis 2002).The biomedical model of health revolves around certain factors which have to be present. The model states that for a person to be unhealthy they have to have some sort of biological abnormality. It in any case states that every disease has some limited cause which has to be diagnosed by the doctor in order to recuperate the patient. It also involves the process of treatment and states that the human body female genitals be reversed back to the normal condition if the right treatment is served to the morbid person. It states that psychological and social processes do not take part in the disease do process. only it also assumes that mind and body are two various entities that have no such relation with each new(prenominal) and lastly the health of the whole society is dependent on the resources that are available to the medical society as a whole (Taylor 2008). The model is largely followed all over the population and its principles are also seen to be the most convincing these days. It is because of this model that researches are being conducted on the biochemical and genetic processes of the body to find out about the different diseases.Moreover all the doctors being trained these days are trained on the principles of this model as they have to learn about the internal environment of a human being so that they can treat them. In other words they have to understand the human body so that they can intervene in the process of disease that may be causing harm to the patient (Curtis 2002 Taylor & Field 2007). It has economic aided to carry out several proposals have proved to be a breakthrough in treating various diseases occurring in the society. The Human Genome Project is an object lesson of the advantages of this model.Human Genome Project was a project launched in the year 1990 by international authorities to find out the sequencing of the human genome along with the identification of the chemical base pairs. Human genomes are the genes which channel information about the here(predicate)ditary characteristics that an individual would possess. In human beings these are found in the form of genes located on the chromosomes. It is this human genome project which allowed the doctors to learn a lot about the structure of chromosomes, the proteins coded by the genes, and the number of genes in a human being.It has also made the surgeries safe and effective. Moreover it has also assisted in controlling the diseases occurring all over the world and this can be noticed in the statistics of morality in the different nations. The diseases which were previously considered to be untreatable can now be treated because of the intimacy acquired after the introduction of this model. As an example the cases of pneumonia and appendicitis can be considered which previously were untreatable. Pneumonia is a disease caused by the bacteria Pneumococcus and affects the lungs whereas appendicitis is the inflammation of the appendix.Pneumonia is a life threatening condition which could not be cured previously but nowadays it can be cured with the help of antibiotics. Appendicitis is also a lethal condition which can be cured with the help of surgery. (Taylor & Field 2007 Havelka et al 2009 Robbins et al 2005). Limitations of the Biomedical Model of Health The biomedical model of health has its own shortcomings and is termed as reductionist by the opponents. In other words it does not broaden its concept towards the factors other than genes and chemicals for example the factors relating to economic or social environment of the individual.This however is covered by the holistic get whic h takes the whole situation in consideration sooner taking a step. Similarly another factor that is mentioned is the relation of the model to the physical causes of the diseases concerned. The opponents point out that not all the diseases are related to physical causes but some of them are caused by a hoi polloi of the factors. An example of the heart disease atherosclerosis can be cited here in which the factors of genetics, diet, and lifestyle play a role (Curtis 2002).It is also criticized to be more related to the aspect of bent rather than preventing the disease. It is believed to be entirely ignoring the aspects of social and psychological variants which do have a role in the progression of a disease. The treatment process is also related to these variants and again this model does not take into consideration these variants because of which some treatments do not go successful (Taylor 2008). Lastly, the model emphasizes on the body in special(a) irrespective of the role t hat mind plays in the health of an individual.This aspect of the model can be denied because the research these days show that the mind plays a great role in influencing the body. Some diseases may be caused because the person may be living in unstable economic conditions and these conditions are not taken into consideration by the model. An example can be cited here in the therapies that are recommended for people who are suffering from different diseases. For example the cognitive therapy recommended for patients suffering from cancer. Cognitive therapy is recommended in the treatment of certain cancers as individuals undergoing he treatment suffer from symptoms like pain, memory loss, lack of concentration, irrational behaviour and mood swings. Cognitive therapies can help in relieving all these symptoms as shown by different researches. (Curtis 2002 Scipio et al 2006). Conclusion The biomedical model of health has been questioned by many sociologists as it does not take the aspe ct of social well being in its exposition. Health is a factor which is dependent on all the aspects of life as put down by the sociologists.Economic and social factors should also be considered when analyzing the health of an individual. These factors also determine the emotions of an individual and hence the person can be sociologically disincline. In other words it is not necessary for a healthy person to be sociologically fit in the current definition of the biomedical model of health. In the latter half of the twentieth century it was realized that the biomedical model of health can be utilize to the ones who are diseased biologically but not the ones who are unfit by other means.This approach therefore led to the adaptation of a new approach known as holistic approach. It is seen that nowadays the biomedical model is adopted for curing purposes along with other factors of society when curing a disease (Curtis 2002 Taylor & Field 2007 Derick & Halligan 1970 Checkland et al 20 08). References Lovallo, W. R. , & Lovallo, W. R. (2005). Stress & health biologic and psychological interactions. Thousand Oaks, Calif Sage Publications. Checkland, K. , Harrison, S. , McDonald, R. , Grant, S. , Campbell, S. , & Guthrie, B. (January 01, 2008).Biomedicine, holism and general medical practice responses to the 2004 General Practitioner contract. Sociology of Health & Illness, 30, 5, 788-803. Havelka, M. , Lucanin, J. D. , & Lucanin, D. (January 01, 2009). Biopsychosocial modelthe integrated approach to health and disease. Collegium Antropologicum, 33, 1, 303-10. Taylor, S. E. (2008). Health psychology. New York McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Curtis, A. J. (2002). Health psychology. London Routledge. Taylor, S. , & Field, D. (2007). Sociology of health and health care. Oxford Blackwell Pub.Wade, Derick T, & Halligan, Peter W. (1970). Do biomedical models of illness make for unspoiled healthcare systems?. BMJ Publishing Group Ltd. Kumar, Vinay, Abul K. Abbas, Nelson Fa usto, Stanley L. Robbins, and Ramzi S. Cotran. Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease. Philadelphia Elsevier Saunders, 2005. Abernethy AP, Keefe FJ, McCrory DC, Scipio CD, Matchar DB. Behavioural therapies for the management of cancer pain a systematic review. In Flor H, Kalso E, Dostrovsky JO, editors. Proceedings of the eleventh World Congress on Pain. Seattle IASP Press 2006. p. 78998.

Motifs and Characterization in Macbeth Essay

The Tragedy of Macbeth, written by William Shakespe are, uses various literary elements among the strongest are subjects and pictures employ to express and interpret important changes and events throughout the play. Macbeth is a brave and ambitious world full of self-doubt who is driven by diabolic forces into bad situations. The motif of settle and darkness symbolizes the conflict mingled with good and criminal. A motif is a significant word, phrase, image, description, idea, or new(prenominal) element repeated throughout a literary work and relate to the theme. Manhood is a motif used throughout the play to symbolize the manly and weak sides of people and what qualities people expect a man to have. Blood comes to symbolize guilt and violence.The clothes as designations motif symbolizes the title a person holds in the kingdom. Characterization is used to explain how sever anyy character changes throughout the play and the reasoning rear their actions. Shakespeare ali ke uses characterization to come apart his plot. Shakespeare shows that Lady Macbeth is a very ambitious, dominating, and controlling character throughout the play. She is the reason Macbeth decides to veil Duncan. King Duncan is loved by everyone in the Kingdom. He is characterized as praiseworthy, caring, nave, and trusting. Banquo is characterized as brave, innocent, logical, and full of reason. He is the mastermind behind the take of King Duncan. Shakespeare uses many motifs throughout the story but he uses a lot of imagery of darkness and light. This is one of the strongest motifs used in the play.The motif of light and darkness symbolizes the conflict between good and evil. This motif is used to foreshadow when something good or bad is going to happen. It to a fault shows the readers which characters are good and which characters are bad. In this play, darkness stands for evil, bad deeds, and hell. It is perpetually dark when something bad is going to happen like when Lady Macbeth decides to kill Duncan. When she makes her decision she says, Come, thick night, / And pall thee in the dunnest smoke of hell, / That my keen prod see not the wound it makes (Act 1. candidate 5. Lines 49-51). The darkness she calls on shows the evil or darkness in the act she plans to commit. The witches are also associated with darkness. They ever so meet in dark, stormy scenes and talk about wandering in foggy and filthy air. They symbolize evil. Light is associated with Heaven, God, and goodness.When Lady Macbeth calls on the homicidal spirits saying, Nor heaven peep through the blanket of the dark (Act 1. Scene 5. Line 52), she is implying that light is the only thing that could stop her from murdering Duncan. Also, when Macbeth is fighting his rivalry to kill Duncan and become King, he says, Stars, hide your fires / Let not light see my black and deep desires (Act 4. Scene 4. Lines 50-51). This statement is implying that he is cerebration evil thoughts and he does not want God to know his evil desires. Light and darkness are very prominent in all the characters actions and thoughts.Macbeth is a man that at first seems content to defend his King and country against treason and rebellion, and yet, his desire for power plays a major post in the way he commits the most heinous acts. Macbeth is characterized as brave, valiant, and loyal. The witches also awaken Macbeths ambition in the first act. The act gives the initial impression of Macbeth as a brave hero and consequently shows us how he changes. It reveals his fixation on the witches prophecy. Macbeth is characterized as a brave and frightful warrior when King Duncan says, For Brave Macbeth-well he deserves that name (Act 1. Scene 2. Line 16).But, Macbeths reaction to the witches predictions emphasizes his great desire for power and prestige. Macbeth realizes that murder might be required to achieve this. He thinks about it but has no promoter of acting on it. He begins to be confused an d he is conflicted. He is caught between his loyalty to the King and his desire for power. He yearns for a elementary way out, free of guilt and consequence. He implies this when he says, If it were done when tis done, then twere well/ It were done quickly (Act 1. Scene 7. Lines 1-2). Lady Macbeth finally emerges and drives the hesitant Macbeth to act she is the will propelling his achievements. Macbeth knows what he does is wrong, and recognizes there will be consequences. He is tempted but tries to resist it. He is not strong sufficiency to stand up to his wife.Literary elements like motifs and characterization help develop the entire plot. By using characterization, Shakespeare is able to reveal the characters thoughts and feelings in parliamentary law for readers to analyze the characters motives for their actions. Characterization gives the reader a better understanding of separately character. The use of motifs in Macbeth help define the setting and mood of the Act, as wel l as the good or bad intentions of the characters. For example, darkness or night in Macbeth is associated with evil, murder, murderous intent, and mischief, and death.Light is feared by those who wish murder on the King, because they do not want their evil thoughts/deeds revealed. Characters who are innocent were always shown in bright, lighted scenes to stress their goodness. Darkness was the mount for evil, as exhibited by the scenes where murder occurs, or where the mischievous, evil witches appear. Blood is a recurring symbol or motif that symbolizes death, and later, Macbeths guilt. These are proficient a few of the many motifs and symbols found in Macbeth. Motifs are used to add depth and richness to characters and settings, and bring out the major themes and ideas of the play.

African Music and Culture Creative Exploration

Afri trick medicine is developed largely by the civilizations in sub-Saharan Africa. Their traditions give emphasis to singing. This is because songs are used as heart and soul of communication.Many languages in Africa are tone languages. Pitch level identifies meanings. Meanwhile, melodies and tempo of their songs go after the intonation and rhythms of the text of the songs. In general, African songs are in form of call-and-response, as if they are really talking. This shows the relationship between the music and linguistic in sub-Saharan Africa. (Genesis 1996-2006)One major effect of the Arab conquest in newton Africa is in religious aspect. Islam proliferated immediately in that part of the continent. They were trading Muhammed, along with their gods name Allah, five times in a day from thousands of towers near the mosque, which are called minarets. These minarets were spread in North Africa, South-Western Europe, and Western and Central Asia. But in other parts of Africa, Isla mization was kinda a slow process. (Doi 1998)Africa is the birthplace of our habit of making music. The continent can be divided in five localitys musically. North Africa has musical lodge with the Arab and Islamic world. European colonization influenced music in West Africa.This theatrical role is known for classical and court music in sub-Saharan Africa. With their traditions, they preserve splendid musical heritage. (Africa 1996-2006)In Madagascar, generally, more metrical songs can be put in on the coastline. Songs that are more soothing and slower are from the privileged part of the place. In linguistics, it is quite mysterious.Their spoken language, Malagasy, is widely used in the country despite of the islands large size and cultural diversity. In additional, Malagasy originated in Indonesia. (WildMadagascar.org 2004-2006)After the resettlement of former African slaves, they got educational and job opportunities in urban areas. They engaged in cultural and scholarly ac tivities.They had published some(prenominal) newspapers and journals. They excelled in this field later. Examples of these successful Africans are Paul Laurence Dunbar, a poet-novelist, and Claude McKay, a black poet and novelist who first attracted a large number of white audience. (AFRICANS-AMERICANS 2006)REFERENCESAfrica 2006. study Geographic Society 1996-2006 cited September 9 2006. purchasable from http//worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/worldmusic/view/page.basic/region/content.region/africa_1AFRICANS-AMERICANS 2006. The History Channel website 2006 cited September 9 2006. Available from http//www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=200351.Doi, Prof. A. Rahman I. 2006. Islam and Africa. Dr. A. Zahoor 1998 cited September 8 2006. Available from http//www.cyberistan.org/islamic/islafrica.htmGenesis, African. 2006. African People & Culture africaguide.com 1996-2006 cited September 8 2006. Available from http//www.africaguide.com/culture/music.htm.WildMadagascar.org. 2006. M alagasy, the language of Madagascar Rhett Butler 2004-2006 cited September 9 2006. Available from http//www.wildmadagascar.org/people/malagasy.html

Alexander Gavin’s Dilemma: Cultural Relativism and Business as Usual Essay

I. outdoor stageThe bandstand I am taking will be the writer of the letter himself, black lovage Gavin, since the matter at hand is a delicate champion and Mr. Gavin is just asking the professor for his thoughts on the matter at hand.II. rumor of the ProblemThe central problem of the case is if Mr. Gavin should accept the get across which includes his cauterize or to find another way for the project to push done without involving himself.III. ObjectivesTo be able-bodied to push through with the project and close the deal no matter what since this opportunity is extremely profitable to the partnership.IV. Areas of Considerationa. Alexander Gavin and his direct boss, the Senior VP for urban projects, are both the Statesns. b. The construction confederacy they are working for deals with major projects in the Middle East. c. The project with Ajax, Ltd. is highly profitable to their fraternity. d. Pay-offs are common in the Middle East.V. Alternative Courses of bodily functi onFrom Alexander Gavins point of view, there are four courses of accomplishment he could take a. He can forward this dilemma to his superiors and stop for their decision. b. He can stick with his ethics and reject the proposal indeed wait for the consequences. c. He can contact the other managers of Ajax, Ltd. and inform them of the degeneration and also to take legal action againstthe manager who spreeed the deal to him. d. He can disregard his ethics and accept the offer given by the manager of Ajax, Ltd.VI. Conclusion and RecommendationThe trump out solution for this ethical dilemma would be the fourth course of action for Alexander Gavin. As a Senior Product Manager of a prestigious construction company based on Kuwait, he must put the companys interests first before his personal reasons. Also, considering that pay-offs are quite common in the Middle East, a 3 million increase from their initial play is only a small fraction to the companys write down considering the hig h profitability of the project.Additionally, taking into account the cultural norm of pay-offs, which the company would be aware of, and Alexander Gavins ethical beliefs. He could offer up his $1 million to the company as an extra or other income. That way, the project pushes through, the company highly profits and Alexander Gavins ethical beliefs would not be broken.Lucky Goldstar Management, Korean StyleI. ViewpointThe viewpoint I am taking would be that of Mr. P.W. Suh, the president of Goldstar of America plant.II. Statement of the ProblemThe key issue of the case is on how the Lucky-Goldstar Group, with its Korean way of life concern, has affected the domesticated electronics industry. Be it in a controvert or positive way.III. Objectivesa. To be able to identify if the effect on the domestic industry is positive or negative.IV. Areas of Considerationa. Korean managements core value is harmony.b. Lucky-Goldstar took a gamble in manufacturing overseas.c. desegregation of K orean management principles onto Dixie or Southern U.S. principles. d. Indicators of better increment than its U.S. counterparts.e. Speed of technological change.V. Case Questionsa. The LG separate has integrated its management expression which influences its workers with harmony. Its methods which are borrowed from the U.S. would be the democratic approach to decision making and management. b. The LG group has started manufacturing in the U.S. to be able to avoid the protectionist rule which bars immaterial products from entering from outside the country and also to gamble that they would be able to profit from this venture. c. It would have a positive impact on the domestic electronics industry because competition is always good for big companies. Competition is what motivates companies to be better than other companies. d. Their recent success can be best explained by scotch and cultural factors.VI. ConclusionThe Korean management style has positively affected the domestic e lectronics industry of the U.S. because of its strong competitive magnate in the market. Competition motivates companies.Its recent success can be explained because of economic and cultural factors. They allocated a huge budget on innovation which resulted in an edge in thetechnological market. Koreas economy has boomed ever since they started this economic move.Also, this venture generated a lot of job opportunities for the sector.

Fashion and Gender Essay

In the western culture, behavior has alter and reflected the distinctions in the midst of the friendly and frugalal status of workforce and wowork force throughout the years. From the 19th century on, sexual practice, social understanding of femininity and masculinity, became hander and much precise. They were diagnosable through trend and costume and were an important aspect in distinguishing roles of men and women. However, changes in contrive will blur as much as emphasise the differences between grammatical gender, evolving in par aloneel get from champion another.Thus, as the constant changes in fashion, the level of differences between men and women varied real so often. Fashion was influencing and defining gender role and gender life style was influencing fashion. Masculine men and feminine women The first signs of gender distinctions appeared at the parachute of the 19th century following the French Revolution. In addition to separating social castees, fash ion instantaneously established a clear division between male and female apparel. hands were no drawn-out powdered or perfumed and they got rid of ornaments and wigs, now signifies of femininity.Their clothing was characterized by a confine use of material, tailored construction, simplified set of surface, uniformity, net and spotless garments, staring(a) hats and limited color (29 January). According to the trickle-down effect, fashion trends were still created by the upper-classes and were followed by others down the scale (05 February). Then, according to Georg Simmel, two types of males emerged from the middle-class. Dandies were followers of the leisure class and never went against a particular fashion dress code musical composition bohemian were rejecting fashion (05 February). men of the upper-class are characterized as a Flaneur by Walter Benjamin Empathy is the nature of the intoxication to which the flaneur abandons himself (05 February). The upper-class still ine vitable to follow three rules in order to stay on cap and keep the middle-class from rising the expensive fabric, the lack of movement inflicted by the garment and the novelty of the ensemble (05 February). They conformed to a conspicuous lifestyle with their absence of labour and function in the society, but still in a more subtle way than women in terms of dress (29 January).Indeed, women became a physical display representing the husbands wealth through fashion, guarantee their social rank in the leisure class the new aristocrats. historic gatherings such as the Grand Prix de Paris were a place where one went to the races, as to the theater, partly to look over the women and their apparel (Hebert, 24). They would wear three-fold colors, dresses with pouf skirts, light fabrics, beading and flower ornaments, parasols and other accessories. Women were placed in the forefront with fashion and devoid of any role or forefinger. the adornment of twain the female person and her en vironment was an expression of womens inferior economic power and her social status as a mans chattel (Veblen, 91). Unattached and unmarried women were also expected to dressed respectfully and fashionably for the dignity of her family and for future husbands. Lower-level women such as actresses and prostitutes, who were mingling with the upper-class, wore more revealing turn but still in fashion. Women were thought of as irrational and sensible creatures who adhered to fashion by weakness, to have a instinct of belonging.During the 19th century and early 20th century, there is a clear distinction between man and woman fashion. It is reflected in their clothes and in their social status and role in the society. Gender was easily classifiable with the shape formed by the garment. While men wear full-strength cut, sober and solid suits, utiliseing all the power, the women dress in soft, work up and colourful dresses, trophies to the men. ? Fashion up location-down With the start of the World War I, women were now helping out and filling more masculine jobs. Roles were no longer clearly defined according to hysical characteristics. Because while war work squeeze women to life in new social and physical environments, they had to conform their clothing to unfamiliar activities and spaces (Matthews David, 101). New technology and new combat techniques meant also a change in menswear. Soldiers had to wear uniforms that hid their masculine forms to allow movement. They replaced their flat and cubic hats with a more feminine and round one with leaves and flowers to hide in the trenches. A definite outline, a traditionally masculine attribute, proved a deadly handicap in battle (Matthews David, 97).Upper-class men were traditionally supposed to show their status through clothing. The advent of the war brumous distinctions between classes as both had to participate in the war effort. Men were no longer useless and ineffective in the society, with meant a neces sity change in fashion. Restrictions in luxury fabrics, such as silk, fur and ornaments, forced a transformation of mens masculine and luxuriant attire. All men were now habiliment jersey fabric clothing, darker terra firma colours and softer silhouettes. In the early 20th century, there was a rarified need for change in fashion.While men were adopting feminine fashion to survive during the war, women started borrowing the simplified and linear masculine silhouette. The flip side of this feminization of the sniper was the much more generalized masculinization of womens noncombatant and uniform dress during the war (Matthews David, 101). They started wearing suits with sober colours to adapt to their more active lifestyle in the warfare. The latter was the start of a changing role in society for women. Before this change, women had no power on fashion or society.They were now needed for labour and they showed to be very efficient. This allowed women to make decisions and have a definite role society. By adopting the masculine look, they gained power. They were no longer considered as an accessory to men. The exchanges of particular characteristics of gender made the distinctions and the differences more blurry. The World War I was a round point in fashion for both men and women. Shortages of materials transformed clothing new fabrics emerged, new silhouettes using less fabrics, less ornaments, leaner cuts, suits for women and softer clothes for men. Women were now looking more or less like men with the square suits and linear dresses, requisitioning their roles as women as though the clothes itself hold the power. While men were still the dominant figure, women were revising their position in the public and private sphere. ? Conclusion To conclude, gender is a social intelligence of masculinity and femininity. Through the 19th and 20th century, both men and women were affected by fashion gender leading the distinctions.Sexes were defined by gender in the 19th century with the specific trends of clothing for each. Men were wearing clean and linear cuts, showing their boxy figures, while women wore elaborate and head-in-the-clouds clothes highlighting their silhouette. Roles were also clearly different according to gender. Men held all the power and women served of accessories, displaying the husbands wealth. The World War I acted as a turning point for men and women. Both were transforming their fashion because of their active lifestyle by adopting each others gender characteristics of fashion.Men muted their figures while women started wearing masculine suits. Gender differences became were blurred and roles redefined women gained power and all men got functional for the society. Hence, the level of distinction between gender is in constant change. Fashion influences gender roles and gender lifestyle influences fashion. The latter blurs, blends as well as emphasis the social perceptions of what a men and a women is and looks like. Gender continues to affect and reflect distinctions between sexes, both constantly borrowing and exchanging from one another.

Probability Theory and Mathematical Systems Probability

Mathematical Systems fortune Solutions by Bracket A First Course in Probability Chapter 4Problems 4. Five custody and 5 women argon ranked according to their scores on an examination. develop that no cardinal scores atomic consider 18 alike and all 10 possible bes are equally likely. let X denote the highest ranking achieved by a wo firearm (for instance, X = 1 if the top-ranked person is female). amaze P X = i , i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 8, 9, 10. permit Ei be the resolution that the the ith scorer is female. Then the government issue X = i correspdonds to the cc egress E1 E2 Ei . It follows that ccP X = i = P (E1 E2 Ei ) . c c c c c = P (E1 )P (E2 E1 ) P (Ei E1 Ei? 1 ) Thus we have P X=i i 1/ 1 2 5/ 2 18 5/ 3 36 5/ 4 84 5/ 5 252 1/ 6 252 0. 7, 8, 9, 10 12. In the game of Two-Finger Morra, 2 workers repoint 1 or 2 ? ngers and simultaneously take a chance the proceeds of ? ngers their opp binglent pull up stakes show. If precisely one of the pseuds gaugees mighty, he wins an numerate (in dollars) equal to the sum of the ? ngers shown by him and his opponent. If both players guess correctly or if neither players guess correctly, hence no money is exchanged. pass on a speci? d player and denote by X the summation of money he wins in a single game of Two-Finger Morra. a. If all(prenominal) player acts independently of the other, and if each player makes his choice of the number of ? ngers he will hold up and the number he will guess that his opponent will hold up in such a way that each of the 4 possibilities is equally likely, what are the possible determine of X and what are their associated probabilities? A given player suffer only win 0, 2, 3, or 4 dollars. Consider two players A and B , and let X denote player As winnings. Let Aij denote the event that player A shows i ? gers and guesses j , and de? ne Bij similarly for player B. 1 We have P X = 2 = P (A11 B12 ) = P (A11 )P (B12 ) = 1 1 = 16 , since we have pretended tha t 44 1 Aij and Bij are independent and that P (Aij ) = P (Bij ) = 4 . Similarly, we have P X = 3 = 1 1 1 P (A12 B22 ? A21 B11 ) = 16 + 16 = 1 and P X = 4 = P (A22 B21 ) = 16 . wrinkle that the situation 8 1 is only symmetric for player B, so the we have P X = ? 2 = P X = ? 4 = 16 and 1 P X = ? 3 = 1 . Finally, we have P X = 0 = 1 ? P X = 0 = 1 ? 1 = 2 . 8 2 b. count that each player acts independently of the other.If each player decides to hold up the same number of ? ngers that he guesses his opponent will hold up, and if each player is equally likely to hold up 1 or 2 ? ngers, what are the possible values of X and their associated probabilities? Neither player can win any money in this scenario. If player A shows 1 ? nger and guesses B will show 1 ? nger, then A can only win if B shows 1 ? nger. But if B shows 1 ? nger, then B will guess that A will show 1 ? nger, and thus neither player will win. The same holds for when A shows 2 ? ngers and guesses that B will show 2 ? ngers. Thus, we have P X = 0 = 1. Mathematical Systems Probability 20. A gambling book recommends the following winning strategy for the game of toothed wheel. It recommends 18 that the risk taker bet $1 on red. If red appears (which has luck 38 ), then the gambler should take her $1 pro? t and quit. If the gambler escapes this bet (which has fortune 20 of exitring), she should 38 make supernumerary $1 bets on red on each of the c set down two spins of the roulette wheel and then quit. Let X denote the gamblers winnings when she quits. a. Find P X 0 . Note that X only takes on the values ? 3, ? 1, and 1. Thus P X0 =P X=1 P (she wins immediately or she loses and then wins the near two) = P (she wins immediately) + P (she loses and then wins the next two) 18 20 18 18 = + ? . 592 38 38 38 38 b. Are you convinced that the winning strategy is indeed a winning strategy? explicate your answer The expected value of X is negative (? ?. 108), which is accounted for by the fact that alth ough the gambler has a high fortune of winning $1, she could also lose $3, and the probability of this haping is not low enough to make the game cost playing in the long run. 21. A total of 4 passenger vehiclees carrying 148 students discrepancy the same school arrives at a football stadium.The b pulmonary tuberculosiss carry, respectively, 40, 33, 25, and 50 students. unrivalled of the students is ergodicly selected. Let X denote the number of students that were on the bus carrying this randomly selected student. One of the 4 bus drivers is also randomly selected. Let Y denote the number of students on her bus. a. Which of E X or E Y do you think is bigger? Why? We should expect E X to be larger since its the per-student mean(a) rather than the per-bus average, and as the per-student average class size was larger than the per-class average class size (from the compositors case in class). b.Compute E X and E Y . We have 33 40 50 25 25 + 33 + 40 + 50 ? 39. 28 148 14 8 148 148 1 1 1 1 E Y = 25 + 33 + 40 + 50 = 37 4 4 4 4 E X = 27. An insurance participation writes a policy to the e? ect that an amount of money A must be paid if some event E returns within a year. If the company estimates that E will occur within a year with probability p, what should it charge the customer in order that its expected pro? t will be 10 percent of A? Let X be denote the companys pro? t at the end of the year, and w be the amount that the customer is charged. The companys pro? is w if E does not occur within the year, and w ? A if E does occur within the year. Thus P X = w = (1 ? p) and P X = w ? A = p. Therefore E X = w(1 ? p) + (w ? A)p = w ? Ap. We set E X = . 1A to obtain w = A(p + . 1). 2 Mathematical Systems Probability 31. Each shadow di? erent meteorologists give us us the probability that it will rain the next day. To judge how hale these people predict, we will score each of them as follows If a meteorologist says that it will rain with probabi lity p, then he or she will receive a score of 1 ? (1 ? p)2 if it does rain, 1 ? p2 if it does not rain.We will then keep track of scores over a certain cartridge clip span and conclude that the meteorologist with the highest average score is the outstrip predictor of weather. Suppose now that a given meteorologist is aware of this and wants to increase his or her expected score. If this person truly believes that it will rain tomorrow with probability p? , what value of p should he or she keep so as to maximize the expected score? Let X be the score that the meteorologist receives, given that she has asserted that it will rain tomorrow with probability p. Then P X = 1 ? (1 ? p)2 = p? and P X = (1 ? p2 ) = (1 ? ? ). It follows that E X = 1 ? (1 ? p)2 p? + (1 ? p2 )(1 ? p? ), which we rearrange and write as a engage of p to obtain E X = f (p) = ? p2 + 2p? p + 1 ? p? . We di? erentiate with respect to p to obtain f (p) = ? 2p + 2p? , which clearly has a vigour at p = p? . It is straightforward to verify that f has a maximum at this zero, so the meteorologist should assert p = p? as the probability that it will rain tomorrow. 41. A man claims to have paranormal perception. As a test, a fair come to is ? ipped 10 times, and the man is asked to predict the outcome in advance. He gets 7 out of 10 correct.What is the probability that he would have done at least this well if he had no ESP? If the man were just guessing, then on each ? ip he would have probability p = 1 of getting the 2 correct answer. Let X be the number of correct guesses out of a sequence of 10 coin ? ips, and we can see that X is a binomial random covariant with lines 10 and 1 . Thus P X ? 7 = 2 10 10 1 i 1 10? i 11 (2) (2) = 64 . i=7 i 51. The expected number of typographic errors on a page of a certain magazine is . 2. What is the probability that the next page you read contains (a)0 and (b)2 or more typographical errors? justify your reasoning. Let X be the number of typographical e rrors on a page of a magazine. Then X is a Poisson random variable with parameter ? = E X = . 2. We then have P X = 0 = e?. 2 ? .819 and P X ? 2 = 1 ? P X 2 = 1 ? P X = 0 ? P X = 1 = 1 ? e?. 2 ? .2e?. 2 ? .0175. 57. Suppose that the number of accidents occurring on a highway each day is a Poisson random variable with parameter ? = 3. a. Find the probability that 3 or more accidents occur today. Let X denote the number of accidents on the stretch of road. Then P X ? 3 = 1 ? P X 3 = 1 ? e? 3 ? 3e? 3 ? 9 e? 3 ? .577. 2 b.Repeat part (a) under the assumption that at least 1 accident occurs today. Note that that the event there are three or more accidents today, is a subset of the event there is at least one accident today, and thus the intersection of the two is just the former. It follows that P X? 3 1 ? e? 3 ? 3e? 3 ? 9 e? 3 2 P X ? 3X ? 1 = = ? . 607. 1 ? e? 3 P X? 1 3 Mathematical Systems Probability 63. People enter a gambling casino at a rate of 1 for every(prenominal) 2 subt iles. a. What is the probability that no one enters between 1200 and 1205? If X is the number of people entering within the 5 minute interval, then X is a Poisson random 5 variable with parameter ? = 2 5. Thus, P X = 0 = e? 2 ? .082. b. What is the probability that at least 4 people enter the casino during that time? Using the same random variable as above, we have 5 55 25 ? 5 125 ? 5 e 2? e 2 ? .242 P X ? 4 = 1 ? e? 2 ? e? 2 ? 2 4 2 8 3 68. In response to an attack of ten missiles, ? ve hundred antiballistic missiles are launched. The missile targets of the antiballistic missiles are independent, with each being equally likely to go towards any of the missiles. If each antiballistic missile independently touchs its target with probability . , use the Poisson paradigm to approximate the probability that all missiles are hit. Consider one particular missile M . A particular antiballistic missile A selects M as its target with probability . 1, and if A selects M then it has probab ility . 1 of hitting it. Hence any such A will hit M with probability (. 1)(. 1) = . 01. Then the likely number of times M gets hit is roughly 500(. 01) = 5. Hence by the Poisson paradigm, if X is M s likely number of hits then X is a Poisson(5) variable. Thus the probability that M is hit is P X 0 = 1 ? P X = 0 = 1 ? e? 5 .There are 10 missiles, so the probability that all of them are hit is then roughly (1 ? e? 5 )10 . 71. Consider a roulette wheel consisting of 38 numbers1 through 36, 0, and double 0. If metalworker always bets that the outcome will be one of the numbers 1 through 12, what is the probability that a. metalworker will lose his ? rst 5 bets Since Smith will lose with probability 26 38 , we will lose his ? rst 5 bets with probability ( 13 )5 ? .15. 19 b. his ? rst win will occur on his 4th bet? Note that this is a geometric random variable with parameter p = 12 (or alternatively, a negative 38 inomial random variable with parameters p = 12 and r = 1). Smiths ? rst w in will occur on his 38 13 6 4th bet with probabiltity ( 19 )3 19 ? .101. 75. A fair coin is continually ? ipped until heads appears for the tenth time. Let X denote the number of white tie that occur. Compute the probability mass function of X . Let Y be a negative binomial random variable with parameters p = 1 and r = 10. An appropriate 2 sequence with n tails in it must contain n + 10 ? ips in it total, and thus n+10 (n + 10) ? 1 r n+9 1 P X = n = P Y = n + 10 = p (1 ? p)(n+10)? r = 2 r? 1 9 4

Paul Kennedys arguments on the rise and fall of great powers Essay

In the originations history, the face of the earth has witnessed former supremacy between various countries and states. all told a enormous from the Spanish rein in their days on the sun, the Britain, France and like a shot the US. whole this scenes on the globe have a signifi screwt bear on on the relative causalitys on the each side. The outstanding issue is not the power but forces behind that power rise, sustainability and its spillway. thusly this essay shall consider the ways of measuring this power sustainability according to the Paul Kennedys survey in his transmission line on the rise and fall of study land powers.IntroductionProfessor Paul Kennedy argues about how predictable and determinable is the fosterage and declining of the major powers in his book entitled The Rise and Fall of the peachy Powers Economic Change and Military Conflict From 1500 to 2000. In this book he presents the literary crinkles which ar utilised to measure the prospects and in dicators of rising and slump of foundings major power. Further more, tilts are presented together with empirical studies of the major institution powers, which hide both political and stintingal be acheingss of the Great Powers. This studies rates and discusses the rise and their fall from 1500 to 1980.Additionally, apart from exclusively discussion their rise and fall, his argument goes beyond the prevailing conditions and projects the future of the US, Japan, China, European Economic Commission and USSR. The core of the Kennedys argument is that the strength of a power of a nation or a state screw only be measured relative to the new(prenominal) existing powers . In this connection, the fundamental issue that he uses as a scale is the item that major powers rising, falling and their sustainability stainlessly depend on the available resources and scotch durability and military strength relative to its requirements for prospering. therefore, the argument for measuring the defy or prosperity of a given land power is by dint of military power and its inputs and the economic and productive power. The twain measuring devices employed by Professor Paul Kennedy 20 division earlier are the central base for this essay paper. Through use of military and economic propensity this essay shall examine the major world powers their rise and spill. Also related to the Kennedys argument is the prediction of the decline of the USSR and US as a major world power or top-notch power , while prediction of gradual but settle down raise of chinaware as a major power.The central dissertation of Paul Kennedy is that the power of a state needs to be maintained and sustained. Therefore the more the power of a state increases, the more resources shall be needed to maintain. The maintenance of a power should be poise between both in military and economic power . But when more state resources are devoted towards maintaining military power in long term it weakens the power and directs it to the path of decline.While when productivity economy middling overweighs military expenditure the power is stable and bathroom be maintained. Therefore the key driver of the power of a state entirely relies on the economic component of the power. gum olibanum the main argument is power can only be maintained by a prudent balance between the creation of wealth and military expenditure. Therefore the essay shall virtually look at this argument that emphasizes on the power measuring literary argument using the balance between wealthy creation and military expenditure.In order to do this effectively the essay shall evaluate how reliable and logical is the argument basing on the major historical world powers especially the Germany, France, US, Moguls of India, drag Empire, USSR, China, Japan and Great Britain. Measures for rise and fall of a large(p) power state The countries in this regard power can only be measured and gauged with each other only when t heir military mighty sustainability cost balances with their economic production or wealth creation through investments or production of gods and services. 0 years earlier Paul Kennedy researched, wrote and interpreted the major world power how they rose over the years into their day on sun and the dark side of their power into decline. Therefore at this portend it is worthy to examine how relevant are the two measuring parameter and how realistic are they to todays reality on our globe, traced from the former(prenominal) and extrapolated into the future. Economic and productive power The key driver of the power of a state entirely relies on the economic component of the power in price of its productivity.This is because as the government running, planning and execution of the plans depends on the locomotive of the economy. Most evident is that, British financial strength was the single well-nigh decisive factor in its victories over France during the 19th century. Therefore in this argument Professor Kennedy argues that it is possible to detect the rise and fall of disparate powers in the world by looking at the economic indices. In this regard economic power dictates the power prosperity. For instance the economic dimension is important to maintain the military mighty.In this connection, economic production should overweigh or balance the expenditure to the military sector. For example Spain, Britain, France and Netherlands military expenditure overweighed their economic production that has lead to their declines since then. Addition to that, we can agree today that during the entire 19th to early 20th century the Great Britain was the fore preceding in the entire world as a great power. The argue for its cosmos on the fore front was the fact that industrial transformation placed it on that position.This is can be empirically evident that Britain per capita grew from 10, 16, 25, 64, 87 and 100 in 1750, 1800, 1830, 1860, 1880, and 1900 respectively. At this time France which was a relative competition for this great power had its per capita from 9, 9, 12, 20, 28 and 39 in 1750, 1800, 1830, 1860,1880 and 1900 respectively . Therefore gauging at these two difference in the production of the in terms of industrial per capita, it implies that the UK had an upper hand even in financing its major military operations than France therefore can maintain the slot of being major power on the globe .Another indicator that is utilise to measure the rising and declining power under the economic and productive power is the relative share of the worlds manufacturing outputs. In this respect, great power states manufacturing output can really determine the peaks and troughs of power. For example UKs output is1. 9 share in 1750, then in 1860 it was at 19. 9 portion, and 22. 9 percent in the year 1880. While chinas starts at an baron of 32. 8% in 1750 and declines to19. % in 1860, after the Taiping Rebellion and Opium Wars then declines g ain g rhythm method of birth control to 12. 5% in 1880. The two combinations give an insight of the power that is undecided financially so that it can be able to run its functions effectively. In this light, statistics of war time indicates that during its reign Britain was capable to maintain its war expenditures effectively. Thus in 1688 to 1815 the total wartime expenses were ? 2,293,483,437 , Britain income was pitched at 1,622,924,377. Thus it only had a balance of 670,559,060.But from 1890s the US economy over took that of Britain and Germany to become the world super power together with other political factors . Thirdly the measures can be in todays economic environment through the use of the states share of the total world gross domestic product which is a round $45 to $50 trillion. At this juncture Kennedys argument predicts the decline of the US as a world super power. Since the share of the US in the world GDP ever declining since 1945 when it over took from Britain. In fact China is a major curse to the US as a world great power.To this effect the statistics indicates that Chinas total GDP will be higher than that of the US by 2025, if the trading systems are not interfered with by natural calamities or human caused activities. Military power Military power is necessary to safeguard the overall power and the economic power of the state. Military power is the symbol of real and hard power. All great powers that rose in the face of the earth had a comparatively stronger military power that enabled the m defeat major battles and wars. For instance the Germany, France, Britain, Spain and Soviet Union .But that one does not exempt the central thesis of the discussion power sustainability can only be achieved through a balance between the wealth creation and the military expenditure that do not over stretch the economy of the state. In this regard at the beginning of the 16th century, Spain was the worlds and European great power with excellent arm f orces . This made it powerful. But the argument is the measure for this power sustainability that makes it relative to either prevail or decline. Therefore fort the Spains case, this excellent phalanx required sustenance from economic resources.Which were over spent on a higher scale from Spains mismanaged resources, deficit budgeting and inflation. Hence in the long run it declined as a major power. The French also adage the same way as Spain at end of the 17th. Whereby France mismanaged its economic resources that was largely used for supporting an increasingly expensive regular armed forces until the menses of the American Revolutionary that led to the French Revolution making this expenditures too huge for the economy top support that ended in a bankruptcy hence its decline.Britain on the other hand had to have a loan to finance its military campaigns, making it use more of the resources than what it creates as economical input. On the other hand the on his prediction for de cline of the US as a major world power in terms of its overstretch on the military expenditures, it is evident that US is spending too much on the military. For instance nuclear full-fleet mail carrier of the US navy that is 20 storey high, that displaces105, 000 tonnes of water. This total expenditure for bodily structure is about $28 billion , which is greatest budget ever in the worlds history.In general, US defense budget only accounts for just over half of total defense expenditure in the world. This together with other reasons makes US ever crisis as a super power. Conclusion The argument of Kennedy Paul about the rise and fall of the worlds greatest powers over human history is to a great extend valid. However it is not 100% accurate and any where in this universe it can not happen. Basing on his central thesis of the argument that the power measuring parameter using the balance between wealthy creation and military expenditure.The essay has explored these measuring devises used by professor Paul indeed there is some validity in this claims. For instance, china over currently has concentrated on the wealth creation by production and controlled minimal military expenditure has seen to pose a threat to US supremacy. Therefore whenever the governance system fails to balance there scorecards between the economic output and inputs to sustain military force activities the decline shall be knocking at the door. Whereas the reverse is true.

Broken Windows and Victimology

The spinsterhood where you do non want to get out(p) of the motorcar. Are hatful more potential to be a victim of curse in these neighborhoods? The spacial syntax possibleness supports the idea that you atomic number 18 more likely to be a victim of a abhorrence in certain beas (Nubian, 2006), and the at sea window surmise of wickedness volitionally supports the Idea that battalion atomic number 18 more likely to commit offenses If they cogitate no one cargons. Small crimes can lead to larger crimes in areas where heap are used to disorder and a lack of consequences for the small crimes (Keeling & Wilson, 1982).The lost window possibleness was introduced in a 1982 article call bustn windows by James Q. Wilson and George L. Keeling. In the article they discuss psychologist Philip Sombreros block out with an aban through with(p)d car. The experiment was done to show how even ethical people that usually do not commit crimes impart commit a crime under cert ain circumstances (Keeling & Wilson, 1982). Zanzibar did many experiments that involved elements of good people doing evil things. He may be best cognize for his Stanford prison experiment, where he wanted to explore situational variables on human behavior.The prison experiment remains one of the most well-k at one timen psychological experiments (Rubberiest, 2013). Zanzibar served as the president of the American Psychiatric Association in 2002. My great attentiveness for Summarizes work got me Interested In the broken window possibility. The broken window experiment showed how even in a nice neighborhood where people would not usually commit crimes they did vandalize and constipation the abandoned car after Zanzibar broke the window on the car. The experiment set the decimal point for the broken window system.According to the broken window hypothesis crime allow be more prevalent in areas that are run follow up and uncared for. If a make has one broken window that has no t been fix it gives the impression that no one cares enough to fix the window. When people call up that no one cares they will break more windows in the building except for fun. As the neighborhood deteriorates and gets more vandalism the more crimes will be committed in that area. According to Keeling and Winslow community deterioration and crime are inextricably linked (Keeling & Wilson, 1982).New York Mayor Rudy Giuliani was motivated by the broken window theory to clean up New York. Together with the question of police Willie Britton they took a very strict stance on graffiti, locomote handling, prostitution, and other diminutive crimes. They proved that by cleaning up the neighborhoods and fetching care of the petty crimes it had a big effect on the bigger crimes as well. There were 2,801 writ of executions were committed 1994 the year that Giuliani took office and by 2003 the murder rate was down to 537, the lowest murder rate since 1963 (Adams, 2006).Another study don e by a college student on the broken window theory in 2011 also produced positive results (US Fed News Service, Including US carry News, 2011). The student cleaned up neighborhoods near campus to decrease the crime rate and to test out the validity of he broken window theory. The work that she did had a positive impact on the residents of the areas that she cleaned up. Opposition to the broken window theory state that there is no real evidence to prove that this theory is valid.A main point that they make is that the lack of crime in the areas that lay down been cleaned up and have been policed more regularly may be ascribable to other things and not Just the policing and upkeep of the neighborhood. While the opposing people do recognize there is a 4 correlation surrounded by the areas that have had step-upd policing and more upkeep ND the reduction in crime, they are quick to point out that correlation does not evidence causation (Miller, 2001). The main weakness in the brok en window theory is that it is very difficult to prove the theory.I think that the opposing side of the broken window theory is not very strong. Much of the criticism takes the theory too literally expecting that Just fixing the windows and graffiti will inhabit murder. However, the theory is more close how once an area starts to deteriorate with petty crimes it can quickly turn into an area where more serious crimes are committed. Once law abiding citizens start tactual sensationing un in effect(p) in an area they establish the area and while the area is becoming slight populated by law abiding citizens it will gradually wrench more populated by criminals.Anyone can be a victim of crime however, there are things that people can sometimes do that can increase the chances that they will be unable to fix it and leave it parked in the parking fate with the broken window it could increase the chances of someone trying to steal the radio out of the car. I see factorization of pro perty crime on two occasions in my life and looking ace on it after learning about the broken window theory I now see that there were things I could have done to decrease my chances of being a victim.The source time I was a victim of property crime I had left field my car parked in my work parking lot for two weeks while I was waiting to get the car repaired. It had locomotive engine trouble and I thought it would be k to leave it in the parking lot. The car sat there for weeks before someone broke the window and tried to steal the radio. The second time I was a victim of property crime I had locomote into an flatcar multiform in a city I had lived n for years. I Just go a few blocks over from where I had been nourishment so I thought that it was obviously a good neighborhood and I did not even look for any signs of trouble.I was 5 used to living in the surrounding neighborhoods with homeowners who took good care of their property however, the apartment knotty was different people did not take care of their property left broken down cars in the parking lot many of the cars were dishonored with busted windows and accident damage to them. I did not pay concern to the cars or the parking lot when I decided to move in. in spite of appearance weeks of moving into the apartment my car was vandalized and my daughters bike was stolen off of the back patio.I think that the broken window theory does explain the amount of property damage and vandalism of that apartment complex that I lived in. To remain safe and not continue to be a victim of crime I moved out of that neighborhood. People in general want to be safe and not become victims of crime if I had understood the theory of spatial syntax and the broken window theory at the time I moved into that neighborhood I would probably paid more prudence to certain details and avoided the situation by choosing a different apartment complex.I am not different in the way that I moved to get away from crime many pe ople alter their life-style as a result of fear of crime. Many people now live in gated communities (Nubian, 2006). People often feel safer in gated communities and in areas where they feel that people care more about their property. When people feel safer they are more present in the streets and therefore criminals would be slight likely to be active in these areas. There are areas that are not kept up where the sense of community is rower that crime is more prevalent in.I can see the broken window theory active in society because of this. People who live or spend a lot of time in these areas are more likely to be victims of crime. I support the broken window theory and mean that communities should be more involved in the condition of their neighborhoods and that would reduce the crime rate. When people do not take care of their property they are more likely to become a victim of crime. In that alike manner of thinking 6 overlooked or go unpunished that can lead to bigger more violent crimes.

Addiction in Adults and It’s Effects on Their Children Essay

When thinking or so drug addiction in magnanimouss, unity a great deal thinks or so and wonders how and when an enceinte starts or becomes prone to drugs. Studies shake shown that people who comport become addicted to drugs from various ca intentions of society. Daily stress of everyday aliveness, almost people argon forced to start drugs in certain situations, the address and life of a person dealing with drug addiction during pregnancy, the hold of drugs during pregnancy, and the effects of drug use during pregnancy just to name a few.See more Foot Binding In China act concord to Authors Lawrence Robinson, Melinda Smith, M. A. , and Joanna Saisan, M. S. W. Last updated January 2012, Many first try drugs out of curiosity, to generate a good time, because friends are doing it, or in an effort to improve athletic performance or ease another problem such(prenominal) as stress, anxiety, or depression. medicine abuse and addiction is less about the amount of substance c onsumed or the frequency, and more to do with the consequences of drug use.No matter how often or how little youre consuming, if your drug use is causing problems in your lifeat work, school, home, or in your relationshipsyou credibly have a drug abuse or addiction problem. Drug addiction overhauls adult down the road of consequences, which such consequences could lead to pregnancy and childbirth. Some addicts may try to clean up during pregnancy barely there are plenty of people addicted to drugs so ruinous that it consumes their mind. Society has to take in account that there have been studies through with(p) on the effects of a parent addicted to drugs raising children. unmatched drop find facts that have found that there are parents that are considered functioning drug addicts. Some drug addicted parents are not involved in their childrens life. Now this leads society to wonder about some of the effects that the child may experience. Some children may have serious or seve ral health issues when they are born(p) addicted to drugs. Experts have likewise shown that some children may not have a medical issue but may experience mental and activated issues at the same time.According to Lisa Levin, student of psychology, the University of Umea, Sweden, under guidance by Gunborg Palme, certified psychologist, certified psychotherapist, teacher and tutor in psychotherapy, The American psychologist Janet G. Woititz was one of the first who paid real attention to the situation for adult children of addicts, with her declare Adult Children of Alcoholics. In this book, she elucidated various characteristics that she found in many of these adult children. Drug ddiction in adults can lead to a world of dying for some(prenominal) the parents and children. Children can be removed from the home and placed in foster care.Sometimes these children experience terrible situations such as torment and abuse. However, in other circumstances where some drug addicted ad ults spontaneous give their children up to family members to rise. At times some of these children can lead down the path of drugs as well. It is being proven that some kids born addicted to drugs have also done drugs as a stripling and adult.In cases children lead level(p) sell drugs, work in adult clubs and entertainment, participate in prostitution, and up to now have children at early ages. only when still one can find some of these children also can have a successful story and go down a completely different path, such as success, college, financial stability, or even religious background. The individual is the one that makes the choice on what path they will take in life. Lisa Levin also stated, Children of addicts are more likely to increase their own substance abuse and social behavior problems than other children.According to certain researchers, the take chances is twice as high, while others estimate the risk to be 4-9 times higher. Personal thoughts on drug addic tion in adults and the effects it has on their children would have to be so many that toy through my head. I hope that children have the chose to make two options in their lives. Since dealing with family members who were and are addicted to drugs and their children have graduate from college, work a good job which pays good money, are married and have a family.I have at the same token had cousins that have also been addicted to drugs, prostitution, selling drugs, end up in jail, and have even died following the wrong path in their life. We all have to be responsible for ourselves and live life accordingly. I dont believe that all children have bad effects of drug addicted parents. I believe they can choose to live a better life and change their situation for the better. One must always find the confidence, drive, and ratiocination to want to make their life what they desire. When being a witness to both sides of the fence, bias is up in the air for now.

Art After Philosophy (1969) Joseph Kosuth Essay

The fact that it has deep become fashionable for physicists themselves to be sympathetic toward religion . . . marks the physicists consume lack of confidence in the rigourousness of their hypotheses, which is a reaction on their p machination from the antireligious dogmatism of nineteenth- coulomb scientists, and a natural ending of the crisis through with(predicate) which bodily science has in effect(p) passed. A. J. Ayer. . . . one time mavin and save(a) has understood the Tractatus there entrust be no temptation to concern sensationself approximately(prenominal) more with doctrine, which is neither empirical desire science nor tautological like mathematics wiz forget, like Wittgenstein in 1918, abandon philosophicalal system, which, as tradition in aloney understood, is rooted in confusion. J. O. Urmson.Traditional philosophy, puff up-nigh by definition, has concerned itself with the un express. The nearly exclusive focus on the said by twentieth-century analytical linguistic philosophers is the sh atomic number 18d contention that the tongueless is unsaid beca expenditure it is un stratagemiculateable. Hegelian philosophy claim sense in the nineteenth century and must come been soothing to a century that was b arly get everyplace Hume, the Enlightenment, and Kant.1 Hegels philosophy was also open of giving binding for a defense of religious beliefs, supplying an alternative to Newtonian mechanics, and alteration in with the growth of history as a discipline, as salubrious as pass judgment Darwinian biology.2 He appeargond to give an accep prorogue fortitude to the conflict surrounded by theology and science, as salutary. The result of Hegels exercise has been that a great majority of contemporary philosophers are re bothy pocket-size more than historians of philosophy, Librarians of the Truth, so to speak.virtuoso begins to get the impression that there is secret code more to be said. And sure enough if atomic number 53 come acrosss the implications of Wittgensteins cerebration, and the thinking influenced by him and after him, Continental philosophy need non seriously be considered here.3 Is there a reason for the unreality of philosophy in our condemnation? Perhaps this fag end be answered by looking into the rest surrounded by our epoch and the centuries preceding us. In the past patchs conclusions rough the world were based on the in potpourriation he had nigh it if non special building blocky like the empiricists, thence gener whollyy like the rationalists.Often in fact, the closeness between science and philosophy was so great that scientists and philosophers were whizz and the same person. In fact, from the times of Thales, Epicurus, Heraclitus, and Aristotle to Desc wilees and Leibnitz, the great names in philosophy were often great names in science as well.4 That the world as perceived by twentieth-century science is a vastly diametric one than the one of its pr eceding century, need non be proved here.Is it possible, then, that in effect man has learned so much, and his give-and- purport is much(prenominal), that he can non believe the reasoning of traditionalistic philosophy? That perhaps he k directlys too much near the world to dissemble those anatomys of conclusions? As Sir mob Jeans has stated . . . When philosophy has availed itself of the results of science, it has not been by borrowing the abstract mathematical description of the pattern of occurrences, besides by borrowing the then up-to-the-minute pictorial description of this pattern thus it has not appropriated definite companionship scarcely conjectures. These conjectures were often good enough for the man-sized world, and not, as we straight know, for those ultimate processes of temperament which control the happenings of the man-sized world, and bring us nearest to the true record of reality.5He continuesOne consequence of this is that the archetype phi losophical coverions of m either(prenominal) problems, such(prenominal)(prenominal) as those of causality and free will orof materialism or mentalism, are based on an interpretation of the pattern of make upts which is no longer tenable. The scientific basis of these older handleions has been washed away, and with their slicing fetch gone all in all the arguments . . .6The twentieth century brought in a time that could be called the end of philosophy and the parentage of graphics. I do not mean that, of course, strictly speaking, however rather as the tilt of the situation. Certainly linguistic philosophy can be considered the heir to quackery, tho its a philosophy in one gear.7 And there is genuinely an contrivance jibe to guile go preceding Duchamp, but its other positions or reasons-to-be are so pronounced that its ability to office clearly as stratagem limits its finesse condition so drastically that its lonesome(prenominal) minimally device.8 In no mec hanistic sense is there a association between philosophys ending and blinds beginning, but I dont find this occurrence exclusively coincidental. Though the same reasons may be responsible for two occurrences, the connection is made by me.I bring this all up to meditate crafts survive and subsequently its viability. And I do so to enable others to understand the reasoning of my and, by extension, other operatives stratagem, as well to provide a clearer intelligence of the term Conceptual fraud.9 THE sour OF ART The main qualifications to the lesser position of painting is that advances in imposture are certainly not ever induceal ones. Donald Judd (1963). Half or more of the best new take to the woods in the last a couple of(prenominal) years has been neither painting nor sculpture. Donald Judd (1965). Ein truththing sculpture has, my work doesnt. Donald Judd (1967). The idea becomes a machine that makes the maneuverificeistic creation. Sol LeWitt (1965) The on e thing to severalize some device is that it is one thing. Art is stratagem-as- fraud and everything else is everything else. Art as machinationistry is nothing but finesse.Art is not what is not prowess. Ad Reinhardt (1963). The meaning is the use. Wittgenstein. A more functional approach to the study of conceits has tended to replace the regularity of introspection. Instead of onrushing to mountain range or describe concepts bare, so to speak, the psychologist investigates the way in which they function as ingredients in beliefs and in judgments. Irving M. Copi. Meaning is endlessly a presupposition of function. T. Segerstedt. . . . the worst consequence of abstract investigations is the meaning of certain words and expressions and not the things and states of affairs themselves about which we talk, when apply those words and expressions. G. H. Von Wright.Thinking is radically metaphoric. Linkage by resemblance is its constituent law or principle, its causal ne xus, since meaning only arises through the causal mountain ranges by which a sign stands for (takes the place of) an instance of a sort. To think of anything is to take it as of a sort (as a such and such) and that as brings in (openly or in disguise) the analogy, the collimate, the metaphoric grapple or ground or grasp or draw by which alone(predicate) the mind takes hold. It takes no hold if there is nothing for it to haul from, for its thinking is the haul, the attraction of likes I. A. Richards.In this section I will address the interval between estheticals and fine cheat consider briefly formalist artwork (because it is a bullocking proponent of the idea of aesthetics as art), and assert that art is analogous to an analytic proposition, and that it is arts equalence as a tautology that enables art to remain aloof from philosophical presumptions. It is necessary to scatter aesthetics from art because aesthetics deals with opinions on perception of the world in gene ral. In the past one of the two prongs of arts function was its repute as decoration. So any branch of philosophy that dealt with dishful and thus, taste, was inevitably duty bound to discuss art as well. proscribed of this habit grew the thought that there was a abstract connection between art and aesthetics, which is not true.This idea never drastically conflicted with delicate considerations out front recent times, not only because the geomorphological characteristics of art perpetuated the continuity of this error, but as well, because the apparent other functions of art (depiction of religious themes, portraiture of aristocrats, flesh out of architecture, etc.) used art to cover up art. When determinations are presented within the setting of art (and until recently objects always have been used) they are as legal for aesthetic consideration as are any objects in the world, and an aesthetic consideration of an object existing in the realm of art content that the obj ects existence or functioning in an art place setting is hostile to the aesthetic judgment. The relation of aesthetics to art is not unlike that of aesthetics to architecture, in that architecture has a very specific function and how good its design is is primarily associate to how well it performs its function.Thus, judgments on what it looks like correspond to taste, and we can cod that throughout history different examples of architecture are praised at different times ciphering on the aesthetics of particular epochs. Aesthetic thinking has even gone so farther as to make examples of architecture not tie in to art at all, whole plant of art in themselves (e.g., the pyramids of Egypt). Aesthetic considerations are indeed always extraneous to an objects function or reason-tobe. Unless of course, that objects reason-to-be is strictly aesthetic.An example of a rigorously aesthetic object is a decorative object, for decorations primary function is to add something to, so as t o make more attractive adorn ornament,10 and this relates now to taste. And this leads us directly to formalist art and rebuke.11 Formalist art (painting and sculpture) is the vanguard of decoration, and, strictly speaking, one could reasonably assert that its art condition is so minimal that for all functional purposes it is not art at all, but pure exercises in aesthetics. Above all things Clement Greenberg is the critic of taste. Behind every one of his decisions is an aesthetic judgment, with those judgments reflecting his taste. And what does his taste reflect? The period he grew up in as a critic, the period real for him the fifties.12How else can one count on for, given his theories if they have any logic to them at all his neutrality in Frank Stella, Ad Reinhardt, and others applicable to his historical scheme? Is it because he is . . . basically unsympathetic on personally experiential grounds?13 Or, in other words, their work doesnt suit his taste? still in the phil osophic tabula rasa of art, if someone calls it art, as Don Judd has said, its art. stipulation this, formalist painting and sculpture can be granted an art condition, but only by virtue of their presentation in name of their art idea (e.g., a rectangular-shaped canvas stretched over wooden supports and stained with such and such intensitys, using such and such forms, giving such and such a visual experience, etc.). If one looks at contemporary art in this light one realizes the minimal creative effort taken on the part of formalist artists specifically, and all painters and sculptors (working as such today) generally.This brings us to the realization that formalist art and upbraiding accepts as a definition of art one that exists simply on morphological grounds. While a vast quantity of equivalent looking objects or images (or visually related objects or images) may reckon to be related (or connected) because of a equality of visual/experiential readings, one cannot title f rom this an artistic or conceptual relationship. It is obvious then that formalist criticisms reliance on syllable structure leads needfully with a preconceived opinion toward the word structure of traditional art. And in this sense their criticism is not related to a scientific method or any sort of empiricism (as Michael Fried, with his detailed descriptions of paintings and other erudite paraphernalia would want us to believe).Formalist criticism is no more than an analysis of the somatogenetic attributes of particular objects that happen to exist in a morphological context. that this doesnt add any knowledge (or facts) to our understanding of the nature or function of art. And neither does it rumormonger on whether or not the objects analyzed are even works of art, in that formalist critics always bypass the conceptual element in works of art. Exactly why they dont comment on the conceptual element in works of art is precisely because formalist art is only art by virtue o f its resemblance to earlier works of art. Its a mindless art. Or, as Lucy Lippard so succinctly described Jules Olitskis paintings theyre visual Muzak.14 Formalist critics and artists alike do not drumhead the nature of art, but as I have said elsewhere Being an artist now center to pass the nature of art. If one is questioning the nature of painting, one cannot be questioning the nature of art. If an artist accepts painting (or sculpture) he is accepting the tradition that goes with it. Thats because the word art is general and the word painting is specific. Painting is a kind of art. If you make paintings you are already accepting (not questioning) the nature of art. One is then accepting the nature of art to be the European tradition of a painting-sculpture dichotomy.15The strongest dissent one can raise against a morphological justification for traditional art is that morphological notions of art embody an implied a priori concept of arts possibilities. And such an a priori concept of the nature of art (as secernate from analytically framed art propositions or work, which I will discuss later) makes it, indeed, a priori impossible to question the nature of art. And this questioning of the nature of art is a very authorised concept in understanding the function of art.The function of art, as a question, was first raised by marcel Duchamp. In fact it is Marcel Duchamp whom we can credit with giving art its ingest identity. (One can certainly see a tendency toward this self-identification of art beginning with Manet and Czanne through to Cubism,16 but their works are light-headed and ambiguous by comparison with Duchamps.) Modern art and the work in advance seemed connected by virtue of their morphology. other way of putting it would be that arts quarrel remained the same, but it was utter new things. The event that made conceivable the realization that it was possible to speak another nomenclature and still make sense in art was Marcel Duchamps first unassisted Ready-made. With the unassisted Ready-made, art changed its focus from the form of the wording to what was being said. Which means that it changed the nature of art from a question of morphology to a question of function.This change one from appearance to conception was the beginning of modern art and the beginning of conceptual art. All art (after Duchamp) is conceptual (in nature) because art only exists conceptually. The appraise of particular artists after Duchamp can be weighed according to how much they questioned the nature of art which is another way of saying what they added to the conception of art or what wasnt there before they started. Artists question the nature of art by presenting new propositions as to arts nature. And to do this one cannot concern oneself with the handed-d proclaim speech of traditional art, as this military action is based on the assumption that there is only one way of framing art propositions. But the very stuff of art is indeed greatly related to creating new propositions.The case is often made particularly in reference to Duchamp that objects of art (such as the Ready-mades, of course, but all art is implied in this) are judged as objets dart in later years and the artists intentions become irrelevant. Such an argument is the case of a preconceived notion ordering together not necessarily related facts. The point is this aesthetics, as we have pointed out, are conceptually irrelevant to art. Thus, any material thing can become objet dart, that is to say, can be considered tasteful, aesthetically pleasing, etc. But this has no bearing on the objects exertion to an art context that is, its functioning in an art context. (E.g., if a collector takes a painting, attaches legs, and uses it as a dining table its an act unrelated to art or the artist because, as art, that wasnt the artists intention.) And what holds true for Duchamps work applies as well to nearly of the art after him. In other words , the value of Cubism for instance is its idea in the realm of art, not the physical or visual qualities seen in a specific painting, or the particularization of certain colors or shapes.For these colors and shapes are the arts language, not its meaning conceptually as art. To look upon a Cubist masterwork now as art is nonsensical, conceptually speaking, as far as art is concerned. (That visual information that was unique in Cubisms language has now been generally absorbed and has a lot to do with the way in which one deals with painting linguistically. E.g., what a Cubist painting meant experimentally and conceptually to, say, Gertrude Stein, is beyond our speculation because the same painting then meant something different than it does now.) The value now of an original Cubist painting is not unlike, in most respects, an original manuscript by Lord Byron, or The Spirit of St. Louis as it is seen in the Smithsonian trigger. (Indeed, museums fill the very same function as the Sm ithsonian Institution why else would the Jeu de Paume wing of the Louvre exhibitCzannes and van Goghs palettes as proudly as they do their paintings?) veridical works of art are little more than historical curiosities. As far as art is concerned Van Goghs paintings arent worth any more than his palette is. They are both collectors items.17 Art lives through influencing other art, not by existing as the physical resi ascribable of an artists ideas. The reason that different artists from the past are brought alive again is because some aspect of their work becomes usable by living artists. That there is no truth as to what art is seems quite unrealized. What is the function of art, or the nature of art? If we continue our analogy of the forms art takes as being arts language one can realize then that a work of art is a kind of proposition presented within the context of art as a comment on art. We can then go further and analyze the types of propositions.A. J. Ayers evaluation of K ants singularity between analytic and celluloid is useful to us here A proposition is analytic when its validity depends solely on the definitions of the symbols it contains, and synthetic when its validity is square offd by the facts of experience.18 The analogy I will start to make is one between the art condition and the condition of the analytic proposition. In that they dont appear to be believable as anything else, or be about anything (other than art) the forms of art most clearly in conclusion referable only to art have been forms closest to analytical propositions. whole works of art are analytic propositions. That is, if viewed within their context as art they provide no information whatsoever about any press of fact. A work of art is a tautology in that it is a presentation of the artists intention, that is, he is saying that that particular work of art is art, which means, is a definition of art.Thus, that it is art is true a priori (which is what Judd means whe n he states that if someone calls it art, its art). Indeed, it is nearly impossible to discuss art in general terms without talking in tautologies for to plan of attack to grasp art by any other handle is unmingledly to focus on another aspect or quality of the proposition, which is ordinarily irrelevant to the artworks art condition. One begins to realize that arts art condition is a conceptual state. That the language forms that the artist frames his propositions in are often private codes or languages is an inevitable outcome of arts freedom from morphological constrictions and it follows from this that one has to be familiar with contemporary art to appreciate it and understand it. Likewise one understands why the man in the lane is intolerant to artistic art and always demands art in a traditional language. (And one understands why formalist art sells like hot cakes.)Only in painting and sculpture did the artists all speak the same language. What is called Novelty Art by t he formalists is often the attempt to find new languages, although a new language doesnt necessarily mean the framing of new propositions e.g., most kinetic and electronic art. Another way of stating, in relation to art, what Ayer asserted about the analytic method in the context of language would be the following The validity of artistic propositions is not dependent on any empirical, much less any aesthetic, presupposition about the nature of things. For the artist, as an analyst, is not directly concerned with the physical properties of things. He is concerned only with the way (1) in which art is capable of conceptual growth and (2) how his propositions are capable of logically following that growth.19 In other words, the propositions of art are not f real(a), but linguistic in character that is, they do not describe the behavior of physical, or even mental objects they express definitions of art, or the formal consequences of definitions of art.Accordingly, we can say that art operates on a logic. For we shall see that the characteristic mark of a purely logical inquiry is that it is concerned with the formal consequences of our definitions (of art) and not with questions of empirical fact.20 To repeat, what art has in common with logic and mathematics is that it is a tautology i.e., the art idea (or work) and art are the same and can be appreciated as art without going outside the context of art for verification.On the other hand, let us consider why art cannot be (or has difficulty when it attempts to be) a synthetic proposition. Or, that is to say, when the truth or falsity of its assertion is verifiable on empirical grounds. Ayer states . . . The criterion by which we determine the validity of an a priori or analytical proposition is not capable to determine the validity of an empirical or synthetic proposition. For it is characteristic of empirical propositions that their validity is not purely formal. To say that a geometrical proposition, or a s ystem of geometrical propositions, is false, is to say that it is self-contradictory. But an empirical proposition, or a system of empirical propositions, may be free from contradiction and still be false. It is said to be false, not because it is formally defective, but because it fails to satisfy some material criterion.21The unreality of realistic art is due to its framing as an art proposition in synthetic terms one is always tempted to verify the proposition through empirical observation. Realisms synthetic state does not bring one to a circular shake off back into a dialogue with the larger framework of questions about the nature of art (as does the work of Malevich, Mondrian, pollock, Reinhardt, early Rauschenberg, Johns, Lichtenstein, Warhol, Andre, Judd, Flavin, LeWitt, Morris, and others), but rather, one is flung out of arts orbit into the infinite space of the human condition. Pure Expressionism, proceed with Ayers terms, could be considered as such A disapprobatio n which consisted of gushy symbols would not express a genuine proposition. It would be a mere ejaculation, in no way characterizing that to which it was supposed to refer.Expressionist works are usually such ejaculations presented in the morphological language of traditional art. If Pollock is important it is because he painted on loose canvas horizontally to the floor. What isnt important is that he later put those drippings over stretchers and hung them parallel to the wall. (In other words what is important in art is what one brings to it, not ones adoption of what was previously existing.) What is even less important to art is Pollocks notions of self-expression because those kinds of subjective meanings are useless to anyone other than those involved with him personally. And their specific quality puts them outside of arts context. I do not make art, Richard Serra says, I am engaged in an activity if someone wants to call it art, thats his business, but its not up to me to de cide that. Thats all figured out later. Serra, then, is very much aware of the implications of his work.If Serra is indeed just figuring out what lead does (gravitationally, molecularly, etc.), why should anyone think of it as art? If he doesnt take the responsibility of it being art, who can, or should? His work certainly appears to be empirically verifiable lead can do, and be used for, many physical activities. In itself this does anything but lead us into a dialogue about the nature of art. In a sense then he is a primitive. He has no idea about art. How is it then that we know about his activity?Because he has told us it is art by his actions after his activity has taken place. That is, by the fact that he is with several galleries, puts the physical balance wheel of his activity in museums (and sells them to art collectors but as we have pointed out, collectors are irrelevant to the condition of art of a work). That he denies his work is art but plays the artist is more than just a paradox. Serra secretly feels that arthood is arrived at empirically. Thus, as Ayer has stated There are no absolutely certain empirical propositions. It is only tautologies that are certain. Empirical questions are one and all hypotheses, which may be confirmed or discredited in actual sense experience. And the propositions in which we record the observations that verify these hypotheses are themselves hypotheses which are subject to the test of further sense experience. Thus there is no last(a) proposition.22What one finds all throughout the writings of Ad Reinhardt is this very similar thesis of artas-art, and that art is always dead, and a living art is a deception.23 Reinhardt had a very clear idea about the nature of art, and his importance is far from recognized. Because forms of art that can be considered synthetic propositions are verifiable by the world, that is to say, to understand these propositions one must leave the tautological-like framework of art and cons ider outside information. But to consider it as art it is necessary to ignore this same outside information, because outside information (experiential qualities, to note) has its own intrinsic worth. And to comprehend this worth one does not need a state of art condition.From this it is easy to realize that arts viability is not connected to the presentation of visual (or other) kinds of experience. That that may have been one of arts extraneous functions in the preceding centuries is not unlikely. After all, man in even the nineteenth century lived in a reasonably standardized visual environment. That is, it was ordinarily predictable as to what he would be coming into contact with day after day. His visual environment in the part of the world in which he lived was fairly consistent. In our time we have an experientially drastically richer environment. One can fly all over the earth in a matter of hours and days, not months. We have the cinema, and color television, as well as the man-made spectacle of the lights of Las Vegas or the skyscrapers of New York City.The whole world is there to be seen, and the whole world can stock ticker man walk on the moon from their living rooms. Certainly art or objects of painting and sculpture cannot be expected to compete experientially with this? The notion of use is relevant to art and its language. Recently the box or cube form has been used a great deal within the context of art. (Take for instance its use by Judd, Morris, LeWitt, Bladen, Smith, Bell, and McCracken not even mentioning the quantity of boxes and cubes that came after.) The difference between all the various uses of the box or cube form is directly related to the differences in the intentions of the artists. Further, as is particularly seen in Judds work, the use of the box or cube form illustrates very well our earlier claim that an object is only art when placed in the context of art.A few examples will point this out. One could say that if one of J udds box forms was seen filled with debris, seen placed in an industrial setting, or even merely seen sitting on a street corner, it would not be identified with art. It follows then that understanding and consideration of it as an artwork is necessary a priori to viewing it in order to see it as a work of art. Advance information about the concept of art and about an artists concepts is necessary to the appreciation and understanding of contemporary art. Any and all of the physical attributes (qualities) of contemporary works, if considered separately and/or specifically, are irrelevant to the art concept. The art concept (as Judd said, though he didnt mean it this way) must be considered in its whole. To consider a concepts parts is invariably to consider aspects that are irrelevant to its art condition or like reading parts of a definition.It comes as no surprise that the art with the least fixed morphology is the example from which we decipher the nature of the general term art . For where there is a context existing separately of its morphology and consisting of its function one is more likely to find results less conforming and predictable. It is in modern arts possession of a language with the shortest history that the plausibility of the defection of that language becomes most possible. It is understandable then that the art that came out of occidental painting and sculpture is the most energetic, questioning (of its nature), and the least assuming of all the general art concerns. In the final analysis, however, all of the arts have but (in Wittgensteins terms) a family resemblance. Yet the various qualities relatable to an art condition possessed by verse line, the novel, the cinema, the theatre, and various forms of music, etc., is that aspect of them most reliable to the function of art as asserted here.Is not the decline of poetry relatable to the implied metaphysics from poetrys use of common language as an art language?24 In New York the last d ecadent stages of poetry can be seen in the move by Concrete poets recently toward the use of actual objects and theatre.25 Can it be that they feel the unreality of their art form? We see now that the axioms of a geometry are simply definitions, and that the theorems of a geometry are simply the logical consequences of these definitions. A geometry is not in itself about physical space in itself it cannot be said to be about anything. But we can use a geometry to reason about physical space.That is to say, once we have given the axioms a physical interpretation, we can proceed to apply the theorems to the objects which satisfy the axioms. Whether a geometry can be applied to the actual physical world or not, is an empirical question which falls outside the scope of geometry itself. There is no sense, and then, in asking which of the various geometries known to us are false and which are true. Insofar as they are all free from contradiction, they are all true. The proposition whic h states that a certain application of a geometry is possible is not itself a proposition of that geometry. All that the geometry itself tells us is that if anything can be brought under the definitions, it will also satisfy the theorems. It is therefore a purely logical system, and its propositions are purely analytic propositions. A. J. Ayer26 here(predicate) then I propose rests the viability of art. In an age when traditional philosophy is unreal because of its assumptions, arts ability to exist will depend not only on its not performing a swear out as entertainment, visual (or other) experience, or decoration which is something easily replaced by kitsch culture, and technology, but, rather, it will remain viable by not assuming a philosophical stance for in arts unique character is the electrical capacity to remain alooffrom philosophical judgments. It is in this context that art shares similarities with logic, mathematics, and, as well, science. But whereas the other endea vors are useful, art is not. Art indeed exists for its own sake. In this period of man, after philosophy and religion, art may maybe be one endeavor that fulfills what another age readiness have called mans spiritual needs. Or, another way of putting it might be that art deals analogously with the state of things beyond physics where philosophy had to make assertions. And arts strength is that even the preceding sentence is an assertion, and cannot be verified by art. Arts only claim is for art. Art is the definition of art.NOTES * Reprinted from Studio International (October, 1969). 1 Morton White, The Age of compendium (New York Mentor Books), p. 14. 2 Ibid., p. 15. 3 I mean by this existentialism and Phenomenology. Even Merleau-Ponty, with his middle-of-the-road position between empiricism and rationalism, cannot express his philosophy without the use of words (thus using concepts) and following this, how can one discuss experience without sharp distinctions between ourselves and the world? 4 Sir James Jeans, physics and Philosophy (Ann Arbor, Mich. University of Michigan Press), p. 17. 5 Ibid., p. 190. 6 Ibid., p. 190. 7 The task such philosophy has taken upon itself is the only function it could perform without making philosophic assertions. 8 This is dealt with in the following section. 9 I would like to make it clear, however, that I intend to speak for no one else. I arrived at these conclusions alone, and indeed, it is from this thinking that my art since 1966 (if not before) evolved.Only recently did I realize after meeting terry Atkinson that he and Michael Baldwin share similar, though certainly not identical, opinions to mine. 10 Websters New World Dictionary of the American Language. 11 The conceptual level of the work of Kenneth Noland, Jules Olitski, Morris Louis, Ron Davis, Anthony Caro, John Hoyland, Dan Christensen, et al., is so horribly low, that any that is there is supplied by the critics promoting it. This is seen later. 12 Michael Frieds reasons for using Greenbergs rationale reflect his background (and most of the other formalist critics) as a scholar, but more of it is due to his desire, I suspect, to bring his scholarly studies into the modern world. One can easily sympathize with his desire to connect, say, Tiepolo with Jules Olitski. One should never forget, however, that a historian loves history more than anything, even art.13 Lucy Lippard uses this quotation in a footnote to Ad Reinhardts ex post facto catalogue, January, 1967, p. 28. 14 Lucy Lippard, Constellation by Harsh Daylight The Whitney Annual, Hudson Review, Vol. 21, No. 1 (Spring, 1968). 15 Arthur R. Rose, Four Interviews, Arts Magazine (February, 1969). 16 As Terry Atkinson pointed out in his introduction to Art-Language (Vol. 1, No. 1), the Cubists never questioned if art had morphological characteristics, but which ones in painting were acceptable. 17 When someone buys a Flavin he isnt buying a light show, for if he was he could just go to a hardware store and get the goods for considerably less. He isnt buying anything. He is subsidizing Flavins activity as an artist. 18 A. J. Ayer, Language, Truth, and Logic (New York Dover Publications), p. 78. 19 Ibid., p. 57.20 Ibid., p. 57. 21 Ibid., p.90. 22 Ibid., p. 94. 23 Ad Reinhardts retrospective catalogue (Jewish Museum, January, 1967) written by Lucy Lippard, p. 12. 24 It is poetrys use of common language to attempt to say the unsayable that is problematic, not any inherent problem in the use of language within the context of art. 25 Ironically, many of them call themselves Conceptual Poets. a great deal of this work is very similar to Walter de Marias work and this is not coincidental de Marias work functions as a kind of object poetry, and his intentions are very poetic he really wants his work to change mens lives. 26 Op. cit., p. 82.